Post by volkerboehme on Sept 15, 2010 11:03:21 GMT -5
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BOEING B367 Stratofreighter and B377 Stratocruiser MINI TUTORIAL 29/08/10
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Please read the supplied B367/377 history before reading this mini tutorial. Topics explained within are not always repeated below. The FS9 flight dynamics update for the KC-97E and KC-97G tanker transports which I provided in December 2006 was the final update which will support tanker sorties or tanker MDLs. Although I do not intend to withdraw those files from circulation, I no longer provide support for tanker sortie simulation.
This B367/377 mini tutorial replaces all prior FS8 and FS9 B367/377 'handling hints'. With minor errors these updated FS9 flight dynamics and associated documentation will also 'work' in both FS8 and appropriately patched versions of FSX, but I do not offer support for FS8 or FSX.
This mini tutorial explains how to captain, pilot and navigate a classic era B367/377 air transport sortie within MSFS; carefully taking into account the limitations of MSFS. Real life is more complex and may have differed. This mini tutorial assumes prior knowledge of all the included navigation and avionics lessons provided by Microsoft on the FS9 CDs, and prior knowledge of the more extensive 2008 Propliner Tutorial.
www.calclassic.com/tutorials.htm
SEPT. 2010 UPDATE:
1. Updated flight dynamics. Follow the handling notes for increased realism (F10 while flying, choose the Reference file).
2. Updated panel. Includes FE/NAV and Pilot's Notepads, and the CalClassic Planner. Includes updated VC panel layout. Instructions for the Notepads available from the reference file (press F10 while flying).
3. New flight engineer's panel from Bruce Smythe. Hot spot just to left of other icons on 2D panel, otherwise press Shift 2 to open.
4. Refer to the Readme First.txt or strat.txt file (depending on package downloaded) for details about the plane, panel, and the installation.
CALCLASSIC NOTEPADS.
Each variety of B377, (but not the B367), now has its own set of Calclassic Notepads. The icon to call them is the small notepad next to the yoke in the VC. The Calclassic Notepad is our virtual crew. They carry out parts of our fuel versus payload planning. They warn us when we have a perceived significant headwind. They warn us when we have used our en route fuel reserves and must divert, potentially to somewhere we have already passed. They predict Operational Ceiling. Learn how to use them.
DIFFICULTY.
These are all complex and difficult aeroplanes to captain, navigate and pilot realistically. Failure to comply with the handling notes may (probably will) cause loss of control at some point during each flight in MSFS. This is not a propliner simulation for propliner novices. You have been warned!
This mini tutorial assumes use of a Boeing 377 Stratocruiser with Hamilton Standard airscrews, or where specified the Boeing 367 (USAF C-97A) Stratofreighter. However B377s with less efficient Curtiss airscrews now have their own specific flight dynamics and handling notes (see below).
PLANNING PHASE.
Planning a B367/377 air transport sortie is no different to planning any propliner sortie, but it differs in numerical detail. If we use the supplied B377 Calclassic notepads they will assist in this process. The B367 has no notepads and it is anyway a good idea to understand why the Calclassic notepads often restrict our take off weight to much less than MTOW.
As always we must locate the 'normal' cruise section of the on screen handling notes to determine planned TAS and planned PPH.
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Normal (profit maximising) cruise:
DO NOT EXCEED FL250
COWLS = CLOSED
MAP = 38 inches
RPM = 1700
When KIAS = 185 step climb 2000 feet
PLAN 3200 PPH <<<<<<<<<
Yields 247 KTAS at FL210 (@ 130,000lbs) <<<<<<<<<
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Neither planning assumption will be true except by co-incidence since weight and weather will always vary during execution. They are nevertheless the invariant planning criteria. We always plan a B367/377 sortie at 247 KTAS burning 3200 PPH which implies that mean cruise will employ 4 x 1600hp. Measuring fuel by volume is utterly pointless in aeroplanes. When flying propliners we do not need to allow for climb and descent differences during planning. They average out.
To fly 1000 miles (*with no reserves*) we need (3200 PPH * 1000 miles / 247 KTAS) pounds of fuel = 13,000lbs and pro rata. Or to put it another way 13 pounds of AVGAS per route mile.
Since within MSFS we never have access to a reliable forecast for weather along the route there is no reason to plan more accurately. We must to the contrary accept that we cannot and therefore load more than adequate reserve fuel.
In accordance with the 2008 Propliner Tutorial we load a 15% weather (nominally headwind) reserve.
1300 * 0.15 = 1950lbs
plus a holding reserve of 45 minutes using the PPH cited for holding;
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Holding:
COWLS = CLOSED
RPM = 1700
FLAP = STAGE 1 (15 degrees)
MAP = adjust to sustain
KIAS = 135
PPH will be <> 1600
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1600 * 0.75 = 1200lbs
plus a diversion reserve using 45 minutes at normal cruise PPH above
3200 * 0.75 = 2400lbs
We must load 13000 + 1950 + 1200 + 2400lbs of AVGAS in order to fly to somewhere 1000 miles away = 18,550 pounds of AVGAS even though in average weather we hope to use only 13,000lbs while en route. We hope to 'employ' the same reserve fuel over and over again, never actually using it.
Our holding and diversion reserve of 3600lbs is a constant. They are a huge proportion of the fuel we must load for a short haul, but become less and less of the total as we fly long haul. Thunder storms, fog, snow, blocked runways, and ATC delays at Heathrow are not less persistent when we short haul. Diversion airfields are no nearer to destination when we short haul. Heathrow to Gatwick is the same diversion distance whether we departed New York or Shannon and the delays at both EGLL and EGKK will not vary based on where we departed. Just to fly a visual circuit around our departure airfield we need 1200 + 2400lbs = 3600lbs of holding and diversion fuel, in case the landing runway is blocked by a crash landing immediately after we take off. To the contrary our weather reserve is a linear function of our planned sortie duration.
Very few flights require maximum fuel. We should never load more route fuel and reserves than we need since the extra fuel induces extra drag. Increasing the weight of the aeroplane by 5% increases its drag by about 5%. MSFS requires maximum fuel to be loaded by default in each aircraft.cfg, and so on almost every flight we must offload (drain) fuel, using the fuel and payload menu, (or the relevant Calclassic Notepad), whether or not we then add an equal weight of payload.
Even if we add an equal weight of payload there is an in flight handling improvement. Reducing fuel (in the wings) reduces both roll and yaw moments of inertia substantially. This minimises the risk of inducing Dutch roll (see later) and makes the aeroplane more responsive, all of the time. It matters whether our useful load is fuel in the wings or payload in the fuselage, not just how much weight we load.
Our aircraft prepared for sortie/service (APS) weight is stated in each variant specific aircraft.cfg alongside our maximum take off weight (MTOW) and our maximum landing weight (MLW). Remember each airline potentially has a different variety of B377 with potentially different maximum weights. The worked example in this mini tutorial applies to B377s with Hamilton Standard airscrews which were allowed to operate at the highest weights. To discover MTOW and MLW we must inspect the aircraft.cfg of each variant.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
[WEIGHT_AND_BALANCE]
reference_datum_position=0,0,0
empty_weight_CG_position=0,0,0
max_gross_weight =147000 ;PAA, NWA, BOAC and Transocean Airlines
empty_weight = 92060 ;including oil, water methanol, seats, galley, toilets, catering etc.
max_landing_weight =121700
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
When delivered all B377s were restricted to MTOW = 142,500lbs. In mid 1950 aircraft with Hamilton Standard airscrews were granted an increase to 147,000lbs. This was reduced to 145,800lbs in 1958 or 1959. For most of their lives most B377s had MTOW = 147,000lbs
When flying (positioning) empty to a destination only 1000 miles away we will depart at 92060 APS + 18550 fuel + 2000 crew = 112,610lbs.
Any payload will increase that departure weight and since we cannot depart in excess of MTOW = 147,000lbs we obviously cannot load payload exceeding 147000 - 112610 = 34,390lbs.
However in complex propliners life is never that simple. We also have a maximum landing weight (MLW) which is also cited in each aircraft.cfg. Since we expect to use only 13,000lbs of fuel en route to a short haul destination, which is 1000 miles away, MTOW is of no consequence at all when short hauling, and all of our pre flight planning revolves around MLW = 121,700lbs.
Expecting to burn only 13,000lbs of AVGAS it should be obvious why we cannot depart at more than 121700 (MLW) + 13000 (expected burn) = 134,700lbs
So our maximum payload on a short haul of 1000 miles is 'only' 134700 - 112610 = 22,090lbs (equivalent to 110 pax plus bags).
In MSFS we will typically choose to load the maximum payload allowed versus MLW and thus we will typically depart at 134,700lbs on a 1000 mile sortie. In practice that implies hauling cargo as well as passengers and bags in a B377. If we were long hauling and expected to use much more fuel en route we could load more than an extra 12,000lbs of fuel, but we can never load an extra 12,000lbs of payload. That is never an option in a B377, (due to its very restrictive MLW), and on many/most sorties our useful load is constrained by MLW not MTOW.
The 'Boys Big Book of Wonderplanes' fails to explain this and gives the opposite impression. If we fail to plan both fuel and payload realistically versus MLW we can never experience a realistic flight because our weight will be wildly wrong for that flight, constraining our performance very wrongly. We will be hugely overweight during our approach and landing, causing all sorts of problems throughout each phase of the flight that would never occur in real life.
The B377s are now more realistically configured with high 'empty' weight due to luxurious 'couchette' seats, galley, cocktail lounge, lavatories etc. The B367 is configured for freighting with a much lower 'empty' weight. The payload they can deliver over any range thus differs more after this Calclassic update.
A realistic experience in MSFS depends on minimal, but realistic, fuel and payload planning. Use the Calclassic Notepads to simplify fuel and payload planning if available.
PROJECTION, PARALLAX and FIELD of VIEW in MSFS
Old fashioned 2D simulation control interfaces only work at ZOOM = 1.0. They deliver false parallax, false range cues, false bearings, false glidepaths, false speed cues, and distort the mesh at every other ZOOM. The overwhelming advantage of modern 3D simulation is that it imposes true parallax at any consumer chosen ZOOM, (scenery level of detail). Varying ZOOM during 3D simulation can never cause false parallax, false bearings, false glidepaths, or distort the mesh. By mathematically preventing those errors 3D simulation allows us the freedom to choose a personal trade off between scenery level of detail, (ZOOM), versus our preferred Field of View (FoV).
Modern 3D simulation control interfaces allow the developer to encode the true pilot eyepoint. We never need to look trough a windscreen narrowed to a slit by fixed false eyepoint, and we never have the highest part of the panel constantly blocking our view due to fixed false eyepoint. Consumers can then vary eyeline at will during simulation.
However modern 3D simulation also has traps for the unwary. Since we each have different eyesight, now use screens of different aspect ratios, and each use those screens at different resolutions, there is no longer a universally correct mix of window width, and depth, and zoom during use of MSFS in 3D simulation mode. A 3D simulation control interface cannot be configured by the developer. It must be configured by the consumer to match their own eyesight and hardware and chosen level of scenery detail. The only universal rule is that we should always maximise window depth allowing our flight simulation window to cover any 'Microsoft Windows Task Bar'.
Many flight simulation enthusiasts suffer from the awful misconception that a wider simulation window will provide a wider Field of View (FoV) during 3D simulation. The mathematics of projection ensure that the exact opposite is true! At any chosen ZOOM factor (= scenery level of detail), we can improve our FoV by using a narrower simulation window. If you have never understood the mathematics of projection and think that a wider window delivers wider FoV it is essential that you debunk your own terrible misconception now. Make a wide simulation window and note how much of the cockpit you can see, both laterally and vertically. Now make a window half that width and the same height. The narrow window delivers increased FoV in all directions at constant ZOOM (level of detail).
During 3D simulation each consumer must adjust their window size and / or zoom (LOD) factor until all frequently used gauges are on screen simultaneously after pressing the key board space bar, (which we use to return to that default in FS9). We must micro adjust zoom using <SHIFT +> and <SHIFT ->. We must micro adjust window aspect ratio (only width) using our mouse.
Within a 3D simulation environment we cannot destroy parallax compliance, but we can make poor personal window aspect ratio choices, in combination with poor personal zoom choices, which provide an inadequate vertical or lateral FoV on our own hardware. We must make configuring our simulation control interface one of our pre take off checks!
3D simulation allows us to decide what is visible by default. We configure our own chosen mix and match of level of detail (using ZOOM), and FoV (using window aspect ratio), *giving absolute priority to neither*. Flight simulation enthusiasts who do not configure each 3D simulation control interface to match their eyesight, by controlling LOD with ZOOM, then controlling FoV with variable window width, are doomed to a miserable time scrolling, panning and zooming to see things that would be readable and in plain view if they had bothered to configure their 3D simulation control interface correctly for use of that aeroplane before flight.
VIRTUAL COCKPIT becomes the default.
A major focus of this B367/377 update has been provision of a fully functional 3D simulation control interface in which the eyepoint is real, in which full 1950s avionics and navigation capability is available without recourse to 'pop up' 2D windows, and yet in which no gauges are obscured. It is now possible to fly any 1950s IFR procedure and at the same time achieve head up parallax compliance from the real eyepoint, down any real eyeline, without ever invoking pop up windows.
We can now sit where the real captain sat, and we can now see what he could see. Only the sight lines that were blocked in real life are blocked during 3D simulation. Realistic parallax projection of the external scenery within the windscreen, which is always our Head Up Display, is assured, at any zoom factor we prefer, to reveal as much of the cockpit environment as we wish.
Partly because this FS8 vintage B377 VC has only a single polygon for gauge placement some gauges are re-located and resized versus real life. Important gauges which lacked tooltips now have them. Since tooltips cannot be placed over the trim wheels in this VC an elevator trim status gauge is provided just right of the yoke, for pre take off use. Of course some MS default gauges are substituted for real ones that do not exist in MSFS. They deliver the correct functionality.
The VC now delivers AUTOFEATHER, provided we remember to arm the system by clicking on the status lights under the clock. It is only possible to arm AUTOFEATHER with the engines running and throttle closed. If your hardware is poorly calibrated or 'jittering' you may be unable to arm autofeather. For most users this has no practical consequence. Manual DEFEATHERING using the defeathering buttons behind the yoke is now also available.
Fully functional R-4360 Wasp Major ANTI DETONATION INJECTION has been added for the first time and is explained in detail below. The ADI status lights are above the clock. They have identical appearance to the autofeather status lights, but they are both easy to identify via their tooltips.
The wing tip is visible by default for ground manoeuvring.
By permission this updated Calclassic release now features the comprehensive 2D pop up 'FE panel' by Bruce Smythe. Some gauges relating to manual mixture control are absent for reasons explained below. An improved 2D simulation control interface with superior modified eyeline, but which cannot deliver head up parallax compliance from a realistic eyepoint is still provided. The pop up radio stack is primarily for use with the improved 2D simulation control interface.
REALISTIC NAVIGATION - RADIO RANGE COURSES - OBSCURED and UNOBSCURED ARC GAUGE procedures.
The updated B367/377 VC now supports and promotes realistic 1950s navigation with, or without, coupling to the realistic 1950s capability Bendix AP. This mini tutorial therefore focuses first on the simulation of 1948 - 1960 IFR navigation which the updated VC is ideally suited to simulating.
The B377 had a very short life in airline passenger service, barely lasting from 1949 to 1960. It was being eclipsed by the DC7 from 1954. The Stratocruiser is a propliner from the days of the four course Radio Ranges, not the later 360 radial VHF Omni Ranges. The 2008 Propliner Tutorial explains in detail how to simulate en route RADIO RANGE four course navigation *anywhere in default MSFS*. To do so we require two obscured arc Bendix NAV receivers with OBS knobs to set the mandated RANGE CRS (the airway centreline depicted in our flight planner). They are now present and fully usable in the updated B377 VC (top left and down right).
The 2008 Propliner Tutorial explains in full how to fly RANGE APPROACHES using the same obscured arc gauges.
In the relevant era the instrument runway the crew approached to locate their destination was rarely the landing runway. Propliners usually flew non precision approaches (RANGE or BLIND or NDB) because they were not going to land on the instrument runway anyway. Propliner crosswind landing limits were usually more restrictive than modern jets. Precision (ILS) approaches are possible in a B377, but should not be the norm. They are pointlessly difficult.
We can now use the updated B377 VC to learn how to fly classic era non precision approaches in a large classic era propliner, but the 2008 Propliner Tutorial training exercises in the Calclassic updated Grumman Goose should be mastered first. To fly RANGE approaches we use NAV1 or NAV2, but to fly NDB approaches we must use the singular Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) tuned to ADF1 or ADF2 (or both).
In a B377 we have four NAV channels 2 x VHF and 2 x MF (or LF or HF), but we have only three navigation gauges. The gauges associated with RANGES have obscured arcs and OBS knobs to dial in the RANGE CRS relevant to our task. The singular RMI has an unobscured arc for use only with Non Directional Beacons (NDBs) in any frequency (wave) band. It has two needles allowing us to direction find (D/F) two NDBs, (in any wave band and in any direction), while sustaining a RANGE CRS using obscured arc NAV1 or NAV2.
Consequently we have a four channel avionics tuning panel, below the engine gauges, which we use to channel navigation data to the correct type of navigation device. We must use that avionics panel to tune all four frequencies RANGE1, RANGE2, ADF1 and ADF2. We *never* channel RANGE data to the unobscured RMI, because it has no means to dial and display the RANGE CRS. We channel only non directional ADF data to the singular RMI by moving both channel switches to point to ADF on the large avionics panel ALL of the time. By that means we force the RANGE data onto our two obscured arc gauges, using their OBS selectors to dial and display the appropriate RANGE CRS which is the airway centreline CRS in our flight plan, or sometimes the CRS for a holding pattern over a RANGE.
Use the 2008 Propliner Tutorial in association with this mini tutorial to revise RADIO RANGE obscured arc and CRS following procedures.
We use the singular RMI to fly NDB (STANDARD BEACON) approaches. and real ATC departures (STANDARD INSTRUMENT DEPARTURES) via NDBs, with both needles connected to deliver unobscured arc ADF as explained in the 2008 Propliner Tutorial. In case it is not obvious ADF 1 is the single needle and ADF 2 is the double needle. The 2008 Propliner Tutorial provides approach plates for single ADF and dual ADF approaches. Many more are available for free download;
www.calclassic.com/propliner_tutorial_charts.htm
In a B367/377 both ADF needles are present on the unobscured arc RMI which we never use to display RANGE data.
In the updated B377 VC the singular unobscured arc RMI is autoslaved to the Bendix gyroscopic system driven by the Bendix flux gate compass in the tail. The RMI also always serves as our directional gyroscope, whether or not we have tuned either ADF aerial, to any wave band. This is quite different to the less expensively equipped default MSFS DC3 in which we must manually slave the dual needle Radio Compass, continuously using a HDG knob, leaving the crew in need of a separate directional gyro compass.
In the B377 our primary directional gyro compass is an RMI which can simultaneously provide 2 x ADF relative and absolute bearings as well as current heading. We channel all RANGE CRS data to the obscured arc Bendix NAV receivers having preset the mandated air way centreline CRS with their OBS knob, and which CRS we must then capture and sustain using the obscured arc swinging (not rotating) needle method. Use the 2008 Propliner Tutorial for revision as necessary.
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Take Off Phase:
MIXTURE = AUTO (in realism screen)
BRAKES = ON
COWLS = 4 to 5 (CTRL+SHIFT+V)
ELEVATOR TRIM = NEUTRAL
FLAP = STAGE 2 (25 degrees)
ADI = ARMED (if > 140,600lbs)
AUTOFEATHER = ARMED
AVIONICS = BOTH SWITCHES TO ADF <<<<<<<<
.........
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Having set both channel switches to ADF to force non directional signals to the unobscured RMI and directional beam (CRS) signals to the obscured arc gauges with OBS knobs we use our mouse to tune the next four (rolling down route) non directional and directional frequencies in our flight plan, by mouseover of the main avionics panel.
We must plan ahead tuning each beacon before we need it. We tune the first two NDBs and the first two RANGES before we depart even though we may not be able to receive and identify them using audio while still on the ground. We must take care to tune one or both NDBs that we will need during the arrival and approach phases before Time of Descent.
Remember ADF which we are directing to our RMI covers a huge range of frequencies in different wave bands and so we may need to use our mouse to select the frequency band, (LF or MF or HF), we intend to tune before we can tune it. The frequency band selectors for ADF1 (left) and ADF2 (right) are at the top of the avionics panel. If you have never understood what the default MSFS DC3 avionics panel is for, what it controls, or how to use it properly, to direct navigation data from the different wavebands, correctly to the correct type of gauge, now is the time to learn. Much of its capability is wasted in the default DC3. It is the necessary simulation control interface for more complex cockpits and classic era navigation procedures.
ILS or LOC+DME approaches.
The Bendix NAV1 obscured arc swinging (not rotating) needle gauge top left of the VC is also used if we intend to fly an ILS (STANDARD BEAM) or LOC+DME (STANDARD BLIND) approach. The Lorenz beam (LLZ/LOC) we then follow is just another RANGE CRS which it would be illegal to D/F using a rotating needle gauge while we are not 'on the beam'.
ILS frequencies and any co-located DME must be directed to the Bendix NAV1 gauge (top left of the VC) using the NAV1 tuner, (top left of the main avionics panel).
IDENT and CRS
We must never use data from a radio emitter whose ident we cannot hear and identify. We must never connect an AP to a RANGE of any kind before identifying the RANGE using the Morse ident feature and pre selecting the CRS we want our AP to intercept with the OBS knob of our obscured arc NAV1 gauge. It may be the wrong beacon on the same frequency (wrong audio), or it may be out of range (no audio), or we may have failed to channel the correct emitter to the correct gauge ,(wrong audio or no audio), and we must always remember that it is the OBS knob of obscured arc NAV1 which controls the RANGE MODE of our AP.
MARKER FANS
It is possible to turn MKR audio OFF, but it is a bad idea. MKR lights fail. Listen to and use the distance to go (altitude should be) MKR tones on any type of approach. They provide vital cues when we are approaching in cloud or limited visibility.
AIRWAY (or APPROACH) INTERSECTIONS.
Intersections are located using CRS1 dialed into NAV1, and CRS2 dialed into NAV2, with their OBS knobs. The two associated RANGES are tuned using the avionics panel.
AIRWAY (or APPROACH) FIXES.
Fixes are located using either NAV1 + DME1 or NAV2 + DME2. The single DME gauge is below the NAV1 gauge but can be switched to display DME2. Prior to the end of the Korean War long range (AIRWAY) DME was not available to civilians and so if we are simulating an earlier date while flying the B377, the DME receiver should be switched OFF until / unless we fly a STANDARD BLIND = LOC+DME approach.
Conversely while simulating a military B367 air transport sortie we slowly have access to TACAN from 1950 onwards and will use long range DME from 1950 onwards.
CLASSIC ERA BENDIX AUTOPILOT - MULTI MODES and uses.
The (Bendix) AP (behind the yoke) is appropriate to the 1948-1960 era, but has one more mode than the real PB-10 autopilot installed at time of B377 delivery. It offers CRS CAPTURE where (at best) the real PB-10 installed in many B377s at delivery offered only CRS HOLD. However we are not obliged to use modes which were not available at real aircraft delivery in the late 1940s. None of the real APs installed in B377s at delivery offered HDG CAPTURE. Within this B367/377 update the supplied VC therefore has no associated AP HDG capture selector of any kind.
The Bendix AP installed in this update can capture and follow all types of Lorenz beam CRS whether defined as RANGE or LOC, *provided they are channeled by the avionics panel to the obscured arc NAV 1 gauge*, when the appropriate mode (RANGE or LOC) is selected via the usual Bendix AP MODE selector. This mode was installed in some B377s (and even more B367s) later in their lives.
Remember that although we can display CRS2 TO (or FROM) RANGE2 on NAV2 our AP RANGE MODE is *always* connected to RANGE1 on NAV1 and CRS1 dialed with the OBS knob of NAV1.
Although it can CRS capture, (the CRS dialed into the obscured arc NAV1 gauge via its OBS knob), just like an original Sperry AP our 1950s Bendix AP cannot VSI hold or HDG capture. With mode preset to AUTOPILOT as soon as the AP is turned ON one AP gyroscope will invoke HDG hold. While in AUTOPILOT MODE we can use the TURN KNOB to force the ailerons to deliver no more than 25 degrees of bank. We choose how much bank and for how long. By that means we control our turn rate while looking at the turn rate gauge above. However we cannot apply enough bank with the TURN KNOB, via the aileron trim tabs, to sustain a mandatory RATE 1 TURN (3 deg/sec) while our profile drag exceeds about 135 KIAS. This impacts holding and approach procedures (see far below). In real life the PB-10 AP allowed higher bank angles, but most airlines instructed pilots not to invoke them with passengers aboard.
With AUTOPILOT MODE *preselected*, as soon as we turn the AP ON, its other gyroscope invokes PITCH HOLD, unless we carefully *preselected* ALT HOLD mode instead. We vary PITCH HOLD with the knurled vertical wheel while ALT HOLD mode is OFF. After those AP modes are invoked they *sustain* even after we change AP mode to RANGE or LOC or LOC/GS and while sustaining they are compatible with both RANGE CRS and LOC CRS capture and following. The AP will autodeselect HDG HOLD MODE if it captures a RANGE or LOC CRS.
The AP will only autodeselect PITCH HOLD or ALT HOLD if in LOC/GS mode and only on reaching the GS. Selection of PITCH HOLD followed by selection of LOC/GS mode may preclude GS interception, but is nevertheless a valid operating mode. Remember APs in MSFS are real systems of limited capability, not infallible video game cheat modes. Consequently we can intercept a RANGE CRS or a LOC CRS in climb or descent, which will *sustain* until we decide to switch to ALT HOLD mode.
Note especially that in RANGE mode the AP will (potentially) capture the RANGE CRS we dial into NAV1 with its OBS knob. NAV1 has an obscured arc so that we cannot D/F the four course RANGE. That would be illegal if we are operating under US federal regulations. We must calculate and fly a course which intercepts the RANGE CRS, (airway centreline course), we have dialed into NAV1 using its OBS knob in exactly the same way we must when intercepting the LOC/LLZ (Lorenz) beam of an ILS. Our 1950s Bendix AP cannot capture a horizontal beam we never cause the aeroplane to intercept, and it cannot intercept a vertically angled beam we never cause the aeroplane to intercept.
Planning and flying the interception of the beams is a skill we must master. The Bendix AP is not an automated cheat mode!
Provided we set up the interception of the RANGE CRS we dialed with the OBS knob of NAV1, and provided we tuned that RANGE and channeled it to NAV1 using the avionics panel, and provided we put our AP into RANGE mode, it will eventually intercept and follow the mandated RANGE CRS, (which should only ever be the flight plan airway centreline, or holding pattern track) TO the RANGE. When using a 1950s AP in RANGE mode we must be vigilant, and we must monitor RANGE passage, in order to cancel RANGE mode, over or just before we reach the RANGE, whether we are following an airway from RANGE to RANGE or flying a holding pattern reversing course over a single RANGE. We must cancel RANGE MODE and revert to AUTOPILOT MODE before we enter the cone of confusion over the RANGE.
RADIO RANGE NAVIGATION ANYWHERE in MSFS.
If we are following an airway the next but one RANGE is always already connected to NAV2 and CRS2 to RANGE2 is already dialed into NAV2 with its OBS knob. As we cross through the cone of confusion above the current RANGE1 *we must DESELECT RANGE MODE manually and select AP MODE*.
Then we must use the TURN KNOB to alter our course to match CRS2 leading to RANGE2 on NAV2 while looking at NAV2. Once we are roughly following CRS2, TO RANGE2, on NAV2 *in AP mode*, we retune NAV1 to receive RANGE2 because it has become RANGE1. Then we use the OBS knob of NAV1 to set the RANGE CRS TO the new RANGE1. It is the CRS currently dialed into NAV2.
We must not reselect AP RANGE MODE again until we have turned the aeroplane to the new course that was recently, and still is, CRS2 on NAV2. RANGE mode must be OFF while we change the RANGE tuned to NAV1 *and* while we use the OBS knob of NAV1 to set the new CRS1. After retuning NAV1 and dialing the new airway centreline CRS and after approximating the new CRS1 of RANGE1 on NAV1 *while in AP MODE*, we can revert to RANGE MODE. Now we tune the next RANGE beyond the new RANGE 1 onto NAV2 and dial the next airway centreline CRS on NAV2 with its OBS knob.
We must never engage AP RANGE mode or AP LOC mode until we have manually positioned the aircraft onto a course which is within 45 degrees of the RANGE CRS or LOC CRS we intend the AP to capture *and* we are within a 'reasonable' distance of capturing it.
Every time we tune a beacon we must use audio to identify the beacon *and to ensure that we are within its usable range*, else the aeroplane will track accurately to the wrong beacon, or will track randomly receiving no beacon. Failure to comply with those requirements is pilot error not AP error or avionics error. The APs in MSFS are real systems of limited capability, not a video game cheat mode. They detect pilot error and they impose the consequence.
There are no relevant bugs in MSFS. It just detects and demonstrates the consequences of pilot error.
NEED TO IDENTIFY SIGNAL SOURCE
We must always remember that in MSFS we may have installed one or many third party scenery bgls containing navaids on the same frequency as the one on our flight plan. As retailed MS ensured that MSFS has no such simultaneous multiplicity of signal sources, but most FS enthusiasts have added hundreds of new navaids which may use the same frequency as the one on their flight plan today and which may be closer than the one on their flight plan today. Only naive users of MSFS who never add scenery to the retail product are entitled to think they are free to not identify the navaids they tune.
Long term users of MSFS must never assume that they can select a navaid by frequency alone. It is no use blaming the gauges or Microsoft when we fail to identify using audio which navaid we have tuned on each of our four NAV + ADF channels. Inside MSFS the nearest signal will overwhelm signals from further away. It is our job to identify whether the nearest signal is the one on our flight plan today. This is a real life problem not a software bug. The greater our altitude the greater the probability that signals from two sources on the same frequency are being received. If we fail to identify *using audio* which of the (several) possible beacons we just tuned that is just pilot error which will be detected and the consequences imposed. It is not an MSFS bug. You have been warned!
We must also remember that the emitter on our flight plan may be out of range or screened by terrain, (is over the radio horizon). We must always listen to the audio ident, not only to see if it is the correct source, but also to determine whether any signal is being received from any emitter at all!
Allowing aeroplanes to track to the wrong beacon, or track aimlessly receiving none, is not a bug in FS9. It is elementary pilot error which is not negated by turning the AP on and pretending the problem is a bug in the AP.
RANGE APPROACHES.
In the classic era of aviation history AP MODE (HDG HOLD MODE) is mostly associated with flying outbound in the hold in patterns before we turn mandatory RATE 1 to capture the inbound CRS TO the RANGE in the hold, but we must also use AP MODE while we transfer the RANGE of interest from NAV2 to NAV1 *and* while we dial the next CRS1 into NAV1.
When the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) is a RANGE, each time we are inbound in the hold to the IAF in RANGE MODE we note our drift which is the difference between the ATC mandated inbound CRS we dialed into NAV1 with its OBS knob, and our current HDG shown on the RMI.
If we use AP to hold we must once again switch to AP MODE as we enter the cone of confusion over the RANGE. We go outbound using the TURN KNOB to establish exactly RATE 1 (3 deg/sec) on the turn rate gauge above. When / while outbound in the hold we need the opposite drift offset and we use the TURN KNOB to impose it as we use our RMI to sustain the HDG required to make good the reciprocal CRS in the holding pattern. After (usually) 60 seconds outbound, still in AP mode, we use the TURN KNOB to turn inbound at exactly RATE 1, (looking at the turn rate gauge immediately above), else we will not align with the compliant inbound CRS of the HOLD.
We may or may not decide to invoke RANGE mode once we are inbound again fro a second time in the hold. We do so at least once to read our drift, (which will also be our drift during the approach from the hold to the instrument runway), so that we can correct our drift using the TURN KNOB to achieve the HDG (on the RMI), which negates that drift to deliver the desired CRS when inbound to the RANGE. If we manage to negate drift on that side of the RANGE in the holding pattern it will also be negated when we proceed beyond the RANGE to the instrument runway when we clear ourselves for the approach. We should not attempt the approach until we have established inbound in the hold on the approach CRS.
The RANGE (usually) becomes the Final Approach Fix (FAF) as we pass over it and become beacon inbound to the airfield. During a RANGE approach, having used RANGE mode to establish the correct track in the current crosswind, we must reject RANGE mode and switch to AUTOPILOT MODE before crossing the RANGE towards destination. Remember during a RANGE approach the airfield is usually not on the CRS we are flying away FROM the RANGE, (using AP mode to hold the HDG on the RMI which matches the CRS in the current crosswind), because the RADIO RANGE only has four courses, usually none of which point at our destination. See 2008 Propliner Tutorial for a fully worked example and approach plate.
Always flying (automated) ILS approaches horribly misses the point of having a full function flight simulator like MSFS, and full function aircraft and systems of the kind available from Calclassic.com. They both exist to teach many additional and interesting real aircrew skills, and learning to fly different types of real approach is a necessary skill if we eventually hope to navigate in all weathers to the many minor airports which have no ILS.
BENDIX AUTOPILOT HEIGHT LIMITS.
The first airliner certificated to employ AUTOLAND was the turbofan era de Havilland Trident. No classic era propliner should ever have the AP engaged in any mode while within 200 feet of the ground. In particular LOC/GS (APR) MODE must be disconnected at least 200 feet above the runway so that we are not fighting the AP as we fly the flare manoeuvre (with rudder and yoke) to land on the mainwheels with slightly positive pitch, with no drift, at between minus 10 and minus 100 VSI. Precision is required, and precision is not available while fighting an AP for control of VSI and HDG.
In MSFS (only) it may be easier to use elevator trim to flare precisely since our desk top controls lack the longer travel and greater force required (resistance offered) by a real yoke.
Most airports in MSFS offer real RANGE (=VOR) approaches, and real STANDARD BLIND (=LOC+DME) approaches not just STANDARD BEAM (ILS) approaches. Many offer even simpler NDB approaches. Learning to fly them all begins with downloading the real world procedures from the internet;
www.calclassic.com/propliner_tutorial_charts.htm
and then using the relevant parts of the 2008 Propliner Tutorial and this mini tutorial to understand and acquire more and more highly valued real world flying skills.
It is of course possible to fly an entire sortie, and any individual real world procedure, without invoking the AP at all, so when the above says 'the AP must be in AP mode' it means if we intend to use AP in the first place of course. Learning to use real classic era Bendix APs in each of their relevant modes is however a significant part of classic era propliner (crew skill) simulation.
Using AP RANGE MODE is essential to accurate determination of drift by comparison of CRS on NAV1 to HDG on RMI, whether flying an airway, or in a holding pattern assessing the drift we will experience on the other side of the RANGE during the approach.
GPS.
The only legitimate use for GPS in the classic era of aviation history is oceanic track compliance. During oceanic flight we must employ the procedures which the 2008 Propliner Tutorial described as Vintage era procedures because they still endured over oceans where there were no RANGES. GPS is provided solely for that purpose and to make use of it we will need a flight plan with the necessary oceanic track fixes included. The appropriate associated 20 minute navigation decision making cycle is explained in the 2008 Propliner Tutorial.
GROUND HANDLING PHASES.
Having no weather forecasts and having loaded 'more than adequate' fuel reserves we are content to use some of those reserves for start up, ground handling at either end of the flight, and for shut down. With piston engines fuel consumption on the ground is slight.
We taxi at a speed which allows us to sustain parallax compliance with the taxiway and runway markings. We avoid skidding the nosewheel by entering turns at restricted speed. We taxi in with flaps retracted and RPM levers advanced to maximum. Cowls are always full open during ground handling.
****************************
After Landing:
RPM = MAXIMUM (required prior to reversing pitch)
THRUST = REVERSE (use T handle)
WHEEL BRAKES = as required
COWLS = FULL OPEN
FLAP = UP
ADI = DISARMED
AUTOFEATHER = DISARMED
****************************
In MSFS we should invoke pitot heat, airscrew anti ice, and airframe anti ice systems from the FE panel before take off. Do *not* invoke carb RAM AIR heat, or any other variety of carb heat, during B367/377 simulation in MSFS.
TAKE OFF PHASE.
During take off we need maximum thrust. We intend to use the engines as *inefficiently* as we possibly can. The last thing we want during a take off is efficiency. We need the last available pound of thrust whatever it takes, however inefficient and expensive its production. Aeroplane captaincy is about deciding what to maximise, what to minimise, and when to do it. By contrast piloting the aeroplane is all about knowing what lever to push. However big or small the aeroplane, it always has a captain and during flight simulation we can never dodge the responsibilities of the captaincy decision making cycle.
To maximise our thrust (inefficiency) we advance the RPM levers to maximum inefficiency and only if we have fuel of adequate quality in the relevant fuel tanks we also move the throttles to maximum. The incredibly complex R-4360 Wasp Major is designed to run on military grade fuel (135 Octane AVGAS). When our airline purchased a B377 it was potentially constrained by that fact.
AVGAS IS A COCKTAIL OF CHEMICALS.
Some commercial airfields and airports did not stock military grade fuel for sale to civilians until the second half of the 1950s. Many others did not sell approved water methanol mixture. Consequently the R-4360 Wasp Major is a dual fuel engine also rated for use with airline grade (130 Octane) AVGAS, but it cannot use General Aviation grade (100 Octane) AVGAS. We must not land where there is no relevant fuel to uplift to take off again.
If we must take off using only airline grade (130 Octane) AVGAS we cannot use full throttle even though we can use maximum RPM. Applying full throttle to an R-4360 engine causes Manifold Pressure (MAP) to reach 60 inches at any runway altitude, but if we are using airline grade 130 Octane we must restrict MAP to 56.5 inches during TOGA. We must take care to do so *manually*, after lining up for take off, while we run up against the brakes. If we allow more, the inadequate quality fuel will detonate too soon damaging the engine, perhaps causing engine fire and failure during, or just after, the take off, even if we arm ADI.
Two airlines that purchased the B377 are known to have used only airline grade fuel almost all of the time. They were AOA and UAL. Their aircraft also had less efficient Curtiss aircrews and were restricted to lower weights even when they used the military grade fuel the P&W Wasp Major really needed. Using only airline grade fuel at restricted MAP they needed *very* long runways if departing at MTOW.
AUGMENTED COOLING - COWL FLAPS.
The MAP values above are only possible if we use three different methods of augmented engine cooling while we employ either of those extreme MAP values. Firstly we must partly open the cowl flaps to increase engine (profile = cooling) co-efficient of drag. The cowl flaps are used to add potentially huge engine (profile = cooling) drag co-efficient, from 112 engine cylinders. Yes, in MSFS as well as in real life. The cowls must be only partly open for take off since drag is literally negative thrust.
Maximum RPM is also maximum internal engine friction, causing maximum engine overheating, so in practice we must reduce RPM as soon as it is safe to do so, but for now we need maximum inefficiency of thrust production to maximise thrust at any price.
AUGMENTED COOLING - AUTORICH MIXTURE.
Whenever we use more than maximum cruise power we must use our precious AVGAS as the *primary* emergency engine coolant. We must pump far too much high octane AVGAS into the engine to cool it down. All the oxygen present has already combined with 'just enough' high octane AVGAS. Consequently as we pump far too much high octane AVGAS into the incredibly hot cylinders it vaporises instantly and like sweat evaporating from our skin the 'latent heat of evaporation' effect causes instant and massive cooling. Having no oxygen to combine with the vaporised fuel pours from the exhaust ports as white vapour; until / unless it ignites on contact with the outside air and burns as an exhaust flame.
The AVGAS we use for emergency engine cooling provides no thrust and so using it for engine cooling reduces our range. We cannot rely wholly on 'wasting' huge amounts of High Octane AVGAS to cool aero engines using autorich mixtures, but we have no choice whenever we apply more than max cruise MAP or max cruise RPM. If we make that captaincy choice we must use our precious AVGAS as the primary emergency engine coolant. Of course during take off and climb that choice is always forced, but we will not use more than max cruise MAP or max cruise RPM unless we need to take off, go around, or climb because we have no AVGAS to squander as coolant during the cruise, descent, holding and approach phases; even if we need to battle a headwind.
EMERGENCY COOLING - ANTI DETONATION INJECTION.
During take off and go around (TOGA) we may need even further internal emergency engine cooling, and that comes in the form of large quantities of water mixed with methanol. Mixed in the right fractions they have a very high evaporative cooling effect inside each cylinder. Before we select any MAP or any RPM in excess of METO (Maximum Except Take Off) we must *arm* the automatic water methanol Anti Detonation Injection (ADI) system. Having been armed the automated system decides when to inject the emergency water-methanol coolant and how much to inject to prevent engine malfunction. In the R-4360 Wasp Major it also varies automixture (see above and below).
In theory we could leave the system armed all the time, but in practice this caused aircrew to think it would work with empty water-methanol tanks, so we are required to disarm the ADI system after reducing to METO power and not arm ADI again until the approach phase, (in case of Go Around in TOGA power at high weights).
Use of ADI is not compulsory if we depart well below MTOW. With Hamilton Standard screws we are not required to use ADI if we depart below 140,600lbs and if we are short hauling we will always be much lighter than that due to the very restrictive MLW of the B367/377. We must make a captaincy choice. If we depart using only DRY thrust the automixture, (we have already selected in the MSFS realism screen), will vary, and the engines will produce less thrust. The runway length needed at 140,600lbs using DRY thrust approximates the runway length required at 145,800lbs using WET thrust.
Boeing 377s with less efficient Curtiss airscrews are restricted to lower MTOW WET and DRY. Their WET MTOW is 142,500lbs and they require ADI present and armed in order to depart at more than 138,000lbs. Even so short hauls will depart at much less than 138,000lbs due to the very restrictive MLW and we may then depart DRY provided the runway is long enough.
Note that if we are simulating AOA or UAL use of airline grade fuel we must restrict MAP to 56.5 inches as well.
This is all explained more briefly in the on screen handling note as follows;
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
***********************************************
Boeing B377 Stratocruiser with Hamilton Standard airscrews Pilot's Handling Notes
The four 2650hp Pratt & Whitney R-4360-TSB3-G Wasp Major engines are carburetted and very highly turbocharged to give their rated power up to 20,000 feet. These engines have automixture in real life. *During B377 simulation set mixture to AUTO in the MSFS realism screen*. Subject to use of military grade 135 Octane AVGAS or better full throttle may be used for take off with or without Anti Detonant Injection (ADI). Each engine delivers 3,500hp briefly for take off (WET) and take off procedure does not vary with altitude. Use of airline grade 130 Octane AVGAS is permitted, but TOGA MAP becomes 56.5 inches and METO MAP becomes 50 inches.
To conserve water methanol mixture this aircraft may depart DRY with ADI DISARMED provided weight does not exceed 140,600lbs.
The Hamilton Standard constant speed propellers will autofeather after engine failure and deliver very powerful reverse pitch.
.............
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
and lower down;
****************************
Take Off Phase:
MIXTURE = AUTO (in realism screen)
BRAKES = ON <<<<<<<<<<<<<
COWLS = 4 to 5 (CTRL+SHIFT+V)
ELEVATOR TRIM = NEUTRAL
FLAP = STAGE 2 (25 degrees)
ADI = ARMED (if > 140,600lbs) <<<<<<<<<<
AUTOFEATHER = ARMED
AVIONICS = BOTH CHANNEL SWITCHES TO ADF
RPM = MAXIMUM
MAP = FULL THROTTLE
MAP = 56.5 inches (if 130 Octane) <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
BRAKES = OFF <<<<<<<<<<<<<<
..........
*****************************
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
So if our departure today is at only 134,700lbs, (short hauling on a 1000 mile stage with maximum allowable payload, as fuel planned above), our airline may instruct us to load and use cheap airline grade 130 Octane AVGAS even if more expensive military grade 135 Octane AVGAS is available and we may elect to depart DRY *if the runway is long enough*. Whether it is long enough just depends on the runway headwind available today. If the wind is calm passengers or cargo may need to be offloaded (bumped). If we do load only airline grade fuel we must restrict MAP to 56.5 inches manually during take off. We may, or may not, then decide it is still safe to depart using only DRY thrust.
It was not profitable to long haul a B377 from most major airports, because in the early 1950s most did not stock and sell either the military grade fuel or the water methanol mixture needed to operate this over-complex airliner at MTOW from their short pre-jet era runways. Remember the weights we see in the 'Boys Big Book of Wonderplanes' are theoretical maxima. In many cases those theoretical maxima have little practical relevance in the real world.
USAF B367s (C-97A Stratofreighters) can obtain military or weapon grade fuel at any NATO base, never load airline grade fuel, and will never need to use less than 60 inches MAP for departure. When below 140,600lbs they may elect to depart DRY.
PRATT & WHITNEY R-4360 WASP MAJOR A.D.I.
Earlier less complex aero engines, including the R-2800 Double Wasp, had been fitted with ADI. The additional WET cooling allowed the engine to be operated at higher MAP for TOGA. Consequently all the MSFS developer has to do to provide full realism is cite the WET and DRY MAP limits, and if applicable different RPM limits for WET and DRY operation, in the on screen handling notes. It is then up to the consumer to make compliant WET and DRY MAP and RPM inputs to obtain realistic WET and DRY thrust. So for instance in the Calclassic DC-6A/B R-2800-CB17 handling notes we see;
****************************
Take Off :
//DC6A or B with R-2800-CB17 engines
............
CALL for TOGA POWER (4 x 2500hp)
PROPS = MAX RPM
Slowly apply FULL THROTTLE
Invokes water/meth injection giving 62 inches MAP
WET is MANDATORY > 95,500lbs
*DRY TAKE OFF SET MAP = 59 & ADI will not invoke*
BRAKES = OFF
ROTATE = 117 KIAS (@ 107000lbs)
............
******************************
The R-2800 incorporated derichment during ADI use. However the R-4360 had a much more elaborate automixture capability which provided sufficient automixture enrichment / derichment to allow full throttle TOGA even with ADI disarmed. Provided it is supplied with military grade AVGAS the R-4360 will generate 60 inches MAP, whether WET or DRY, safely and at any runway altitude.
****************************
Take Off Phase:
//B377 with Hamilton Standard screws.
MIXTURE = AUTO (in realism screen)
................
ADI = ARMED (if > 140,600lbs)
AUTOFEATHER = ARMED
AVIONICS = BOTH CHANNEL SWITCHES TO ADF
RPM = MAXIMUM
MAP = FULL THROTTLE
MAP = 56.5 inches (if 130 Octane)
BRAKES = OFF
ROTATE = 106 KIAS (@ 147,000lbs)
..................
**********************************
The consequence is that the complex automixture in this very complex engine 'derates' the thrust produced by this engine when DRY even though the engine runs at exactly the same MAP and RPM whether WET or DRY.
WET thrust is *automatically* almost 8% greater than DRY thrust at the same TOGA MAP and RPM. From this update onwards that also applies within MSFS. A B367/377 crew make the same throttle and RPM inputs regardless of ADI status. Until now that automated R-4360 'derating' system has been missing during R-4360 simulation.
However from now on we must ARM the R-4360 ADI system or R-4360 engines will be *automatically derated* to deliver only DRY thrust in MSFS. Inside MSFS we must arm the ADI system by clicking on the four green ADI status lights. Failure to ARM ADI may prove fatal unless the runway is very long or we are departing light. You have been warned!
Make sure you do not confuse the ADI ARMED status lights with the AUTOFEATHER ARMED status lights. AOTOFEATHER should always be armed for TOGA, but arming ADI is a captaincy choice. We may need to preserve our water/methanol mixture for use from smaller commercial airfields and airports, with shorter runways, where we cannot purchase replenishment.
If we choose to take off using only airline grade fuel we must manually limit MAP to 56.5 inches and if we fail to arm ADI the engine will be further derated causing a *very* long take off distance at the DRY thrust take off limit of 140,600lbs.
In passing let's notice that the R-2800-CB17 Double Wasp, was designed to use 145 Octane *weapon* grade fuel, in e.g. the later so called PAA 'Douglas Super Six' used for trans Atlantic services alongside the so called PAA B377 'Super Stratocruiser'. Consequently the R-2800-CB17 can generate 62 MAP WET or 59 MAP DRY in safety, while the much bigger and more powerful R-4360 Wasp Major designed to use inferior 135 Octane *military* grade fuel is limited to 60 MAP WET or DRY but is automatically derated to produce about 8% less thrust when DRY.
Either engine may require careful manual restriction of MAP as we run up against the brakes, after lining up on the runway, but the reasons are different.
We can rotate the much heavier, but much bigger winged, B377 at much lower IAS = Vr, but it will take longer to reach that lower IAS in a B367/377 due to all the extra mass we must accelerate; and much longer if we depart with only R-4360 DRY thrust. Nevertheless DRY thrust departures are appropriate to a DC6B or a B367/B377 if we are light enough and the runway is long enough, (which really means if the headwind during take off is strong enough today).
This Boeing 367/377 update completes the process of providing realistic WET and DRY thrust for all Calclassic aircraft, (which I still support), for all relevant engine variants, to which that concept is applicable. Most now also have on screen handling note instructions for operation with different grades of AVGAS if applicable.
Continued in next post...
BOEING B367 Stratofreighter and B377 Stratocruiser MINI TUTORIAL 29/08/10
****************************************************************
Please read the supplied B367/377 history before reading this mini tutorial. Topics explained within are not always repeated below. The FS9 flight dynamics update for the KC-97E and KC-97G tanker transports which I provided in December 2006 was the final update which will support tanker sorties or tanker MDLs. Although I do not intend to withdraw those files from circulation, I no longer provide support for tanker sortie simulation.
This B367/377 mini tutorial replaces all prior FS8 and FS9 B367/377 'handling hints'. With minor errors these updated FS9 flight dynamics and associated documentation will also 'work' in both FS8 and appropriately patched versions of FSX, but I do not offer support for FS8 or FSX.
This mini tutorial explains how to captain, pilot and navigate a classic era B367/377 air transport sortie within MSFS; carefully taking into account the limitations of MSFS. Real life is more complex and may have differed. This mini tutorial assumes prior knowledge of all the included navigation and avionics lessons provided by Microsoft on the FS9 CDs, and prior knowledge of the more extensive 2008 Propliner Tutorial.
www.calclassic.com/tutorials.htm
SEPT. 2010 UPDATE:
1. Updated flight dynamics. Follow the handling notes for increased realism (F10 while flying, choose the Reference file).
2. Updated panel. Includes FE/NAV and Pilot's Notepads, and the CalClassic Planner. Includes updated VC panel layout. Instructions for the Notepads available from the reference file (press F10 while flying).
3. New flight engineer's panel from Bruce Smythe. Hot spot just to left of other icons on 2D panel, otherwise press Shift 2 to open.
4. Refer to the Readme First.txt or strat.txt file (depending on package downloaded) for details about the plane, panel, and the installation.
CALCLASSIC NOTEPADS.
Each variety of B377, (but not the B367), now has its own set of Calclassic Notepads. The icon to call them is the small notepad next to the yoke in the VC. The Calclassic Notepad is our virtual crew. They carry out parts of our fuel versus payload planning. They warn us when we have a perceived significant headwind. They warn us when we have used our en route fuel reserves and must divert, potentially to somewhere we have already passed. They predict Operational Ceiling. Learn how to use them.
DIFFICULTY.
These are all complex and difficult aeroplanes to captain, navigate and pilot realistically. Failure to comply with the handling notes may (probably will) cause loss of control at some point during each flight in MSFS. This is not a propliner simulation for propliner novices. You have been warned!
This mini tutorial assumes use of a Boeing 377 Stratocruiser with Hamilton Standard airscrews, or where specified the Boeing 367 (USAF C-97A) Stratofreighter. However B377s with less efficient Curtiss airscrews now have their own specific flight dynamics and handling notes (see below).
PLANNING PHASE.
Planning a B367/377 air transport sortie is no different to planning any propliner sortie, but it differs in numerical detail. If we use the supplied B377 Calclassic notepads they will assist in this process. The B367 has no notepads and it is anyway a good idea to understand why the Calclassic notepads often restrict our take off weight to much less than MTOW.
As always we must locate the 'normal' cruise section of the on screen handling notes to determine planned TAS and planned PPH.
************************************
Normal (profit maximising) cruise:
DO NOT EXCEED FL250
COWLS = CLOSED
MAP = 38 inches
RPM = 1700
When KIAS = 185 step climb 2000 feet
PLAN 3200 PPH <<<<<<<<<
Yields 247 KTAS at FL210 (@ 130,000lbs) <<<<<<<<<
***************************
Neither planning assumption will be true except by co-incidence since weight and weather will always vary during execution. They are nevertheless the invariant planning criteria. We always plan a B367/377 sortie at 247 KTAS burning 3200 PPH which implies that mean cruise will employ 4 x 1600hp. Measuring fuel by volume is utterly pointless in aeroplanes. When flying propliners we do not need to allow for climb and descent differences during planning. They average out.
To fly 1000 miles (*with no reserves*) we need (3200 PPH * 1000 miles / 247 KTAS) pounds of fuel = 13,000lbs and pro rata. Or to put it another way 13 pounds of AVGAS per route mile.
Since within MSFS we never have access to a reliable forecast for weather along the route there is no reason to plan more accurately. We must to the contrary accept that we cannot and therefore load more than adequate reserve fuel.
In accordance with the 2008 Propliner Tutorial we load a 15% weather (nominally headwind) reserve.
1300 * 0.15 = 1950lbs
plus a holding reserve of 45 minutes using the PPH cited for holding;
*****************************
Holding:
COWLS = CLOSED
RPM = 1700
FLAP = STAGE 1 (15 degrees)
MAP = adjust to sustain
KIAS = 135
PPH will be <> 1600
****************************
1600 * 0.75 = 1200lbs
plus a diversion reserve using 45 minutes at normal cruise PPH above
3200 * 0.75 = 2400lbs
We must load 13000 + 1950 + 1200 + 2400lbs of AVGAS in order to fly to somewhere 1000 miles away = 18,550 pounds of AVGAS even though in average weather we hope to use only 13,000lbs while en route. We hope to 'employ' the same reserve fuel over and over again, never actually using it.
Our holding and diversion reserve of 3600lbs is a constant. They are a huge proportion of the fuel we must load for a short haul, but become less and less of the total as we fly long haul. Thunder storms, fog, snow, blocked runways, and ATC delays at Heathrow are not less persistent when we short haul. Diversion airfields are no nearer to destination when we short haul. Heathrow to Gatwick is the same diversion distance whether we departed New York or Shannon and the delays at both EGLL and EGKK will not vary based on where we departed. Just to fly a visual circuit around our departure airfield we need 1200 + 2400lbs = 3600lbs of holding and diversion fuel, in case the landing runway is blocked by a crash landing immediately after we take off. To the contrary our weather reserve is a linear function of our planned sortie duration.
Very few flights require maximum fuel. We should never load more route fuel and reserves than we need since the extra fuel induces extra drag. Increasing the weight of the aeroplane by 5% increases its drag by about 5%. MSFS requires maximum fuel to be loaded by default in each aircraft.cfg, and so on almost every flight we must offload (drain) fuel, using the fuel and payload menu, (or the relevant Calclassic Notepad), whether or not we then add an equal weight of payload.
Even if we add an equal weight of payload there is an in flight handling improvement. Reducing fuel (in the wings) reduces both roll and yaw moments of inertia substantially. This minimises the risk of inducing Dutch roll (see later) and makes the aeroplane more responsive, all of the time. It matters whether our useful load is fuel in the wings or payload in the fuselage, not just how much weight we load.
Our aircraft prepared for sortie/service (APS) weight is stated in each variant specific aircraft.cfg alongside our maximum take off weight (MTOW) and our maximum landing weight (MLW). Remember each airline potentially has a different variety of B377 with potentially different maximum weights. The worked example in this mini tutorial applies to B377s with Hamilton Standard airscrews which were allowed to operate at the highest weights. To discover MTOW and MLW we must inspect the aircraft.cfg of each variant.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
[WEIGHT_AND_BALANCE]
reference_datum_position=0,0,0
empty_weight_CG_position=0,0,0
max_gross_weight =147000 ;PAA, NWA, BOAC and Transocean Airlines
empty_weight = 92060 ;including oil, water methanol, seats, galley, toilets, catering etc.
max_landing_weight =121700
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
When delivered all B377s were restricted to MTOW = 142,500lbs. In mid 1950 aircraft with Hamilton Standard airscrews were granted an increase to 147,000lbs. This was reduced to 145,800lbs in 1958 or 1959. For most of their lives most B377s had MTOW = 147,000lbs
When flying (positioning) empty to a destination only 1000 miles away we will depart at 92060 APS + 18550 fuel + 2000 crew = 112,610lbs.
Any payload will increase that departure weight and since we cannot depart in excess of MTOW = 147,000lbs we obviously cannot load payload exceeding 147000 - 112610 = 34,390lbs.
However in complex propliners life is never that simple. We also have a maximum landing weight (MLW) which is also cited in each aircraft.cfg. Since we expect to use only 13,000lbs of fuel en route to a short haul destination, which is 1000 miles away, MTOW is of no consequence at all when short hauling, and all of our pre flight planning revolves around MLW = 121,700lbs.
Expecting to burn only 13,000lbs of AVGAS it should be obvious why we cannot depart at more than 121700 (MLW) + 13000 (expected burn) = 134,700lbs
So our maximum payload on a short haul of 1000 miles is 'only' 134700 - 112610 = 22,090lbs (equivalent to 110 pax plus bags).
In MSFS we will typically choose to load the maximum payload allowed versus MLW and thus we will typically depart at 134,700lbs on a 1000 mile sortie. In practice that implies hauling cargo as well as passengers and bags in a B377. If we were long hauling and expected to use much more fuel en route we could load more than an extra 12,000lbs of fuel, but we can never load an extra 12,000lbs of payload. That is never an option in a B377, (due to its very restrictive MLW), and on many/most sorties our useful load is constrained by MLW not MTOW.
The 'Boys Big Book of Wonderplanes' fails to explain this and gives the opposite impression. If we fail to plan both fuel and payload realistically versus MLW we can never experience a realistic flight because our weight will be wildly wrong for that flight, constraining our performance very wrongly. We will be hugely overweight during our approach and landing, causing all sorts of problems throughout each phase of the flight that would never occur in real life.
The B377s are now more realistically configured with high 'empty' weight due to luxurious 'couchette' seats, galley, cocktail lounge, lavatories etc. The B367 is configured for freighting with a much lower 'empty' weight. The payload they can deliver over any range thus differs more after this Calclassic update.
A realistic experience in MSFS depends on minimal, but realistic, fuel and payload planning. Use the Calclassic Notepads to simplify fuel and payload planning if available.
PROJECTION, PARALLAX and FIELD of VIEW in MSFS
Old fashioned 2D simulation control interfaces only work at ZOOM = 1.0. They deliver false parallax, false range cues, false bearings, false glidepaths, false speed cues, and distort the mesh at every other ZOOM. The overwhelming advantage of modern 3D simulation is that it imposes true parallax at any consumer chosen ZOOM, (scenery level of detail). Varying ZOOM during 3D simulation can never cause false parallax, false bearings, false glidepaths, or distort the mesh. By mathematically preventing those errors 3D simulation allows us the freedom to choose a personal trade off between scenery level of detail, (ZOOM), versus our preferred Field of View (FoV).
Modern 3D simulation control interfaces allow the developer to encode the true pilot eyepoint. We never need to look trough a windscreen narrowed to a slit by fixed false eyepoint, and we never have the highest part of the panel constantly blocking our view due to fixed false eyepoint. Consumers can then vary eyeline at will during simulation.
However modern 3D simulation also has traps for the unwary. Since we each have different eyesight, now use screens of different aspect ratios, and each use those screens at different resolutions, there is no longer a universally correct mix of window width, and depth, and zoom during use of MSFS in 3D simulation mode. A 3D simulation control interface cannot be configured by the developer. It must be configured by the consumer to match their own eyesight and hardware and chosen level of scenery detail. The only universal rule is that we should always maximise window depth allowing our flight simulation window to cover any 'Microsoft Windows Task Bar'.
Many flight simulation enthusiasts suffer from the awful misconception that a wider simulation window will provide a wider Field of View (FoV) during 3D simulation. The mathematics of projection ensure that the exact opposite is true! At any chosen ZOOM factor (= scenery level of detail), we can improve our FoV by using a narrower simulation window. If you have never understood the mathematics of projection and think that a wider window delivers wider FoV it is essential that you debunk your own terrible misconception now. Make a wide simulation window and note how much of the cockpit you can see, both laterally and vertically. Now make a window half that width and the same height. The narrow window delivers increased FoV in all directions at constant ZOOM (level of detail).
During 3D simulation each consumer must adjust their window size and / or zoom (LOD) factor until all frequently used gauges are on screen simultaneously after pressing the key board space bar, (which we use to return to that default in FS9). We must micro adjust zoom using <SHIFT +> and <SHIFT ->. We must micro adjust window aspect ratio (only width) using our mouse.
Within a 3D simulation environment we cannot destroy parallax compliance, but we can make poor personal window aspect ratio choices, in combination with poor personal zoom choices, which provide an inadequate vertical or lateral FoV on our own hardware. We must make configuring our simulation control interface one of our pre take off checks!
3D simulation allows us to decide what is visible by default. We configure our own chosen mix and match of level of detail (using ZOOM), and FoV (using window aspect ratio), *giving absolute priority to neither*. Flight simulation enthusiasts who do not configure each 3D simulation control interface to match their eyesight, by controlling LOD with ZOOM, then controlling FoV with variable window width, are doomed to a miserable time scrolling, panning and zooming to see things that would be readable and in plain view if they had bothered to configure their 3D simulation control interface correctly for use of that aeroplane before flight.
VIRTUAL COCKPIT becomes the default.
A major focus of this B367/377 update has been provision of a fully functional 3D simulation control interface in which the eyepoint is real, in which full 1950s avionics and navigation capability is available without recourse to 'pop up' 2D windows, and yet in which no gauges are obscured. It is now possible to fly any 1950s IFR procedure and at the same time achieve head up parallax compliance from the real eyepoint, down any real eyeline, without ever invoking pop up windows.
We can now sit where the real captain sat, and we can now see what he could see. Only the sight lines that were blocked in real life are blocked during 3D simulation. Realistic parallax projection of the external scenery within the windscreen, which is always our Head Up Display, is assured, at any zoom factor we prefer, to reveal as much of the cockpit environment as we wish.
Partly because this FS8 vintage B377 VC has only a single polygon for gauge placement some gauges are re-located and resized versus real life. Important gauges which lacked tooltips now have them. Since tooltips cannot be placed over the trim wheels in this VC an elevator trim status gauge is provided just right of the yoke, for pre take off use. Of course some MS default gauges are substituted for real ones that do not exist in MSFS. They deliver the correct functionality.
The VC now delivers AUTOFEATHER, provided we remember to arm the system by clicking on the status lights under the clock. It is only possible to arm AUTOFEATHER with the engines running and throttle closed. If your hardware is poorly calibrated or 'jittering' you may be unable to arm autofeather. For most users this has no practical consequence. Manual DEFEATHERING using the defeathering buttons behind the yoke is now also available.
Fully functional R-4360 Wasp Major ANTI DETONATION INJECTION has been added for the first time and is explained in detail below. The ADI status lights are above the clock. They have identical appearance to the autofeather status lights, but they are both easy to identify via their tooltips.
The wing tip is visible by default for ground manoeuvring.
By permission this updated Calclassic release now features the comprehensive 2D pop up 'FE panel' by Bruce Smythe. Some gauges relating to manual mixture control are absent for reasons explained below. An improved 2D simulation control interface with superior modified eyeline, but which cannot deliver head up parallax compliance from a realistic eyepoint is still provided. The pop up radio stack is primarily for use with the improved 2D simulation control interface.
REALISTIC NAVIGATION - RADIO RANGE COURSES - OBSCURED and UNOBSCURED ARC GAUGE procedures.
The updated B367/377 VC now supports and promotes realistic 1950s navigation with, or without, coupling to the realistic 1950s capability Bendix AP. This mini tutorial therefore focuses first on the simulation of 1948 - 1960 IFR navigation which the updated VC is ideally suited to simulating.
The B377 had a very short life in airline passenger service, barely lasting from 1949 to 1960. It was being eclipsed by the DC7 from 1954. The Stratocruiser is a propliner from the days of the four course Radio Ranges, not the later 360 radial VHF Omni Ranges. The 2008 Propliner Tutorial explains in detail how to simulate en route RADIO RANGE four course navigation *anywhere in default MSFS*. To do so we require two obscured arc Bendix NAV receivers with OBS knobs to set the mandated RANGE CRS (the airway centreline depicted in our flight planner). They are now present and fully usable in the updated B377 VC (top left and down right).
The 2008 Propliner Tutorial explains in full how to fly RANGE APPROACHES using the same obscured arc gauges.
In the relevant era the instrument runway the crew approached to locate their destination was rarely the landing runway. Propliners usually flew non precision approaches (RANGE or BLIND or NDB) because they were not going to land on the instrument runway anyway. Propliner crosswind landing limits were usually more restrictive than modern jets. Precision (ILS) approaches are possible in a B377, but should not be the norm. They are pointlessly difficult.
We can now use the updated B377 VC to learn how to fly classic era non precision approaches in a large classic era propliner, but the 2008 Propliner Tutorial training exercises in the Calclassic updated Grumman Goose should be mastered first. To fly RANGE approaches we use NAV1 or NAV2, but to fly NDB approaches we must use the singular Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) tuned to ADF1 or ADF2 (or both).
In a B377 we have four NAV channels 2 x VHF and 2 x MF (or LF or HF), but we have only three navigation gauges. The gauges associated with RANGES have obscured arcs and OBS knobs to dial in the RANGE CRS relevant to our task. The singular RMI has an unobscured arc for use only with Non Directional Beacons (NDBs) in any frequency (wave) band. It has two needles allowing us to direction find (D/F) two NDBs, (in any wave band and in any direction), while sustaining a RANGE CRS using obscured arc NAV1 or NAV2.
Consequently we have a four channel avionics tuning panel, below the engine gauges, which we use to channel navigation data to the correct type of navigation device. We must use that avionics panel to tune all four frequencies RANGE1, RANGE2, ADF1 and ADF2. We *never* channel RANGE data to the unobscured RMI, because it has no means to dial and display the RANGE CRS. We channel only non directional ADF data to the singular RMI by moving both channel switches to point to ADF on the large avionics panel ALL of the time. By that means we force the RANGE data onto our two obscured arc gauges, using their OBS selectors to dial and display the appropriate RANGE CRS which is the airway centreline CRS in our flight plan, or sometimes the CRS for a holding pattern over a RANGE.
Use the 2008 Propliner Tutorial in association with this mini tutorial to revise RADIO RANGE obscured arc and CRS following procedures.
We use the singular RMI to fly NDB (STANDARD BEACON) approaches. and real ATC departures (STANDARD INSTRUMENT DEPARTURES) via NDBs, with both needles connected to deliver unobscured arc ADF as explained in the 2008 Propliner Tutorial. In case it is not obvious ADF 1 is the single needle and ADF 2 is the double needle. The 2008 Propliner Tutorial provides approach plates for single ADF and dual ADF approaches. Many more are available for free download;
www.calclassic.com/propliner_tutorial_charts.htm
In a B367/377 both ADF needles are present on the unobscured arc RMI which we never use to display RANGE data.
In the updated B377 VC the singular unobscured arc RMI is autoslaved to the Bendix gyroscopic system driven by the Bendix flux gate compass in the tail. The RMI also always serves as our directional gyroscope, whether or not we have tuned either ADF aerial, to any wave band. This is quite different to the less expensively equipped default MSFS DC3 in which we must manually slave the dual needle Radio Compass, continuously using a HDG knob, leaving the crew in need of a separate directional gyro compass.
In the B377 our primary directional gyro compass is an RMI which can simultaneously provide 2 x ADF relative and absolute bearings as well as current heading. We channel all RANGE CRS data to the obscured arc Bendix NAV receivers having preset the mandated air way centreline CRS with their OBS knob, and which CRS we must then capture and sustain using the obscured arc swinging (not rotating) needle method. Use the 2008 Propliner Tutorial for revision as necessary.
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Take Off Phase:
MIXTURE = AUTO (in realism screen)
BRAKES = ON
COWLS = 4 to 5 (CTRL+SHIFT+V)
ELEVATOR TRIM = NEUTRAL
FLAP = STAGE 2 (25 degrees)
ADI = ARMED (if > 140,600lbs)
AUTOFEATHER = ARMED
AVIONICS = BOTH SWITCHES TO ADF <<<<<<<<
.........
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Having set both channel switches to ADF to force non directional signals to the unobscured RMI and directional beam (CRS) signals to the obscured arc gauges with OBS knobs we use our mouse to tune the next four (rolling down route) non directional and directional frequencies in our flight plan, by mouseover of the main avionics panel.
We must plan ahead tuning each beacon before we need it. We tune the first two NDBs and the first two RANGES before we depart even though we may not be able to receive and identify them using audio while still on the ground. We must take care to tune one or both NDBs that we will need during the arrival and approach phases before Time of Descent.
Remember ADF which we are directing to our RMI covers a huge range of frequencies in different wave bands and so we may need to use our mouse to select the frequency band, (LF or MF or HF), we intend to tune before we can tune it. The frequency band selectors for ADF1 (left) and ADF2 (right) are at the top of the avionics panel. If you have never understood what the default MSFS DC3 avionics panel is for, what it controls, or how to use it properly, to direct navigation data from the different wavebands, correctly to the correct type of gauge, now is the time to learn. Much of its capability is wasted in the default DC3. It is the necessary simulation control interface for more complex cockpits and classic era navigation procedures.
ILS or LOC+DME approaches.
The Bendix NAV1 obscured arc swinging (not rotating) needle gauge top left of the VC is also used if we intend to fly an ILS (STANDARD BEAM) or LOC+DME (STANDARD BLIND) approach. The Lorenz beam (LLZ/LOC) we then follow is just another RANGE CRS which it would be illegal to D/F using a rotating needle gauge while we are not 'on the beam'.
ILS frequencies and any co-located DME must be directed to the Bendix NAV1 gauge (top left of the VC) using the NAV1 tuner, (top left of the main avionics panel).
IDENT and CRS
We must never use data from a radio emitter whose ident we cannot hear and identify. We must never connect an AP to a RANGE of any kind before identifying the RANGE using the Morse ident feature and pre selecting the CRS we want our AP to intercept with the OBS knob of our obscured arc NAV1 gauge. It may be the wrong beacon on the same frequency (wrong audio), or it may be out of range (no audio), or we may have failed to channel the correct emitter to the correct gauge ,(wrong audio or no audio), and we must always remember that it is the OBS knob of obscured arc NAV1 which controls the RANGE MODE of our AP.
MARKER FANS
It is possible to turn MKR audio OFF, but it is a bad idea. MKR lights fail. Listen to and use the distance to go (altitude should be) MKR tones on any type of approach. They provide vital cues when we are approaching in cloud or limited visibility.
AIRWAY (or APPROACH) INTERSECTIONS.
Intersections are located using CRS1 dialed into NAV1, and CRS2 dialed into NAV2, with their OBS knobs. The two associated RANGES are tuned using the avionics panel.
AIRWAY (or APPROACH) FIXES.
Fixes are located using either NAV1 + DME1 or NAV2 + DME2. The single DME gauge is below the NAV1 gauge but can be switched to display DME2. Prior to the end of the Korean War long range (AIRWAY) DME was not available to civilians and so if we are simulating an earlier date while flying the B377, the DME receiver should be switched OFF until / unless we fly a STANDARD BLIND = LOC+DME approach.
Conversely while simulating a military B367 air transport sortie we slowly have access to TACAN from 1950 onwards and will use long range DME from 1950 onwards.
CLASSIC ERA BENDIX AUTOPILOT - MULTI MODES and uses.
The (Bendix) AP (behind the yoke) is appropriate to the 1948-1960 era, but has one more mode than the real PB-10 autopilot installed at time of B377 delivery. It offers CRS CAPTURE where (at best) the real PB-10 installed in many B377s at delivery offered only CRS HOLD. However we are not obliged to use modes which were not available at real aircraft delivery in the late 1940s. None of the real APs installed in B377s at delivery offered HDG CAPTURE. Within this B367/377 update the supplied VC therefore has no associated AP HDG capture selector of any kind.
The Bendix AP installed in this update can capture and follow all types of Lorenz beam CRS whether defined as RANGE or LOC, *provided they are channeled by the avionics panel to the obscured arc NAV 1 gauge*, when the appropriate mode (RANGE or LOC) is selected via the usual Bendix AP MODE selector. This mode was installed in some B377s (and even more B367s) later in their lives.
Remember that although we can display CRS2 TO (or FROM) RANGE2 on NAV2 our AP RANGE MODE is *always* connected to RANGE1 on NAV1 and CRS1 dialed with the OBS knob of NAV1.
Although it can CRS capture, (the CRS dialed into the obscured arc NAV1 gauge via its OBS knob), just like an original Sperry AP our 1950s Bendix AP cannot VSI hold or HDG capture. With mode preset to AUTOPILOT as soon as the AP is turned ON one AP gyroscope will invoke HDG hold. While in AUTOPILOT MODE we can use the TURN KNOB to force the ailerons to deliver no more than 25 degrees of bank. We choose how much bank and for how long. By that means we control our turn rate while looking at the turn rate gauge above. However we cannot apply enough bank with the TURN KNOB, via the aileron trim tabs, to sustain a mandatory RATE 1 TURN (3 deg/sec) while our profile drag exceeds about 135 KIAS. This impacts holding and approach procedures (see far below). In real life the PB-10 AP allowed higher bank angles, but most airlines instructed pilots not to invoke them with passengers aboard.
With AUTOPILOT MODE *preselected*, as soon as we turn the AP ON, its other gyroscope invokes PITCH HOLD, unless we carefully *preselected* ALT HOLD mode instead. We vary PITCH HOLD with the knurled vertical wheel while ALT HOLD mode is OFF. After those AP modes are invoked they *sustain* even after we change AP mode to RANGE or LOC or LOC/GS and while sustaining they are compatible with both RANGE CRS and LOC CRS capture and following. The AP will autodeselect HDG HOLD MODE if it captures a RANGE or LOC CRS.
The AP will only autodeselect PITCH HOLD or ALT HOLD if in LOC/GS mode and only on reaching the GS. Selection of PITCH HOLD followed by selection of LOC/GS mode may preclude GS interception, but is nevertheless a valid operating mode. Remember APs in MSFS are real systems of limited capability, not infallible video game cheat modes. Consequently we can intercept a RANGE CRS or a LOC CRS in climb or descent, which will *sustain* until we decide to switch to ALT HOLD mode.
Note especially that in RANGE mode the AP will (potentially) capture the RANGE CRS we dial into NAV1 with its OBS knob. NAV1 has an obscured arc so that we cannot D/F the four course RANGE. That would be illegal if we are operating under US federal regulations. We must calculate and fly a course which intercepts the RANGE CRS, (airway centreline course), we have dialed into NAV1 using its OBS knob in exactly the same way we must when intercepting the LOC/LLZ (Lorenz) beam of an ILS. Our 1950s Bendix AP cannot capture a horizontal beam we never cause the aeroplane to intercept, and it cannot intercept a vertically angled beam we never cause the aeroplane to intercept.
Planning and flying the interception of the beams is a skill we must master. The Bendix AP is not an automated cheat mode!
Provided we set up the interception of the RANGE CRS we dialed with the OBS knob of NAV1, and provided we tuned that RANGE and channeled it to NAV1 using the avionics panel, and provided we put our AP into RANGE mode, it will eventually intercept and follow the mandated RANGE CRS, (which should only ever be the flight plan airway centreline, or holding pattern track) TO the RANGE. When using a 1950s AP in RANGE mode we must be vigilant, and we must monitor RANGE passage, in order to cancel RANGE mode, over or just before we reach the RANGE, whether we are following an airway from RANGE to RANGE or flying a holding pattern reversing course over a single RANGE. We must cancel RANGE MODE and revert to AUTOPILOT MODE before we enter the cone of confusion over the RANGE.
RADIO RANGE NAVIGATION ANYWHERE in MSFS.
If we are following an airway the next but one RANGE is always already connected to NAV2 and CRS2 to RANGE2 is already dialed into NAV2 with its OBS knob. As we cross through the cone of confusion above the current RANGE1 *we must DESELECT RANGE MODE manually and select AP MODE*.
Then we must use the TURN KNOB to alter our course to match CRS2 leading to RANGE2 on NAV2 while looking at NAV2. Once we are roughly following CRS2, TO RANGE2, on NAV2 *in AP mode*, we retune NAV1 to receive RANGE2 because it has become RANGE1. Then we use the OBS knob of NAV1 to set the RANGE CRS TO the new RANGE1. It is the CRS currently dialed into NAV2.
We must not reselect AP RANGE MODE again until we have turned the aeroplane to the new course that was recently, and still is, CRS2 on NAV2. RANGE mode must be OFF while we change the RANGE tuned to NAV1 *and* while we use the OBS knob of NAV1 to set the new CRS1. After retuning NAV1 and dialing the new airway centreline CRS and after approximating the new CRS1 of RANGE1 on NAV1 *while in AP MODE*, we can revert to RANGE MODE. Now we tune the next RANGE beyond the new RANGE 1 onto NAV2 and dial the next airway centreline CRS on NAV2 with its OBS knob.
We must never engage AP RANGE mode or AP LOC mode until we have manually positioned the aircraft onto a course which is within 45 degrees of the RANGE CRS or LOC CRS we intend the AP to capture *and* we are within a 'reasonable' distance of capturing it.
Every time we tune a beacon we must use audio to identify the beacon *and to ensure that we are within its usable range*, else the aeroplane will track accurately to the wrong beacon, or will track randomly receiving no beacon. Failure to comply with those requirements is pilot error not AP error or avionics error. The APs in MSFS are real systems of limited capability, not a video game cheat mode. They detect pilot error and they impose the consequence.
There are no relevant bugs in MSFS. It just detects and demonstrates the consequences of pilot error.
NEED TO IDENTIFY SIGNAL SOURCE
We must always remember that in MSFS we may have installed one or many third party scenery bgls containing navaids on the same frequency as the one on our flight plan. As retailed MS ensured that MSFS has no such simultaneous multiplicity of signal sources, but most FS enthusiasts have added hundreds of new navaids which may use the same frequency as the one on their flight plan today and which may be closer than the one on their flight plan today. Only naive users of MSFS who never add scenery to the retail product are entitled to think they are free to not identify the navaids they tune.
Long term users of MSFS must never assume that they can select a navaid by frequency alone. It is no use blaming the gauges or Microsoft when we fail to identify using audio which navaid we have tuned on each of our four NAV + ADF channels. Inside MSFS the nearest signal will overwhelm signals from further away. It is our job to identify whether the nearest signal is the one on our flight plan today. This is a real life problem not a software bug. The greater our altitude the greater the probability that signals from two sources on the same frequency are being received. If we fail to identify *using audio* which of the (several) possible beacons we just tuned that is just pilot error which will be detected and the consequences imposed. It is not an MSFS bug. You have been warned!
We must also remember that the emitter on our flight plan may be out of range or screened by terrain, (is over the radio horizon). We must always listen to the audio ident, not only to see if it is the correct source, but also to determine whether any signal is being received from any emitter at all!
Allowing aeroplanes to track to the wrong beacon, or track aimlessly receiving none, is not a bug in FS9. It is elementary pilot error which is not negated by turning the AP on and pretending the problem is a bug in the AP.
RANGE APPROACHES.
In the classic era of aviation history AP MODE (HDG HOLD MODE) is mostly associated with flying outbound in the hold in patterns before we turn mandatory RATE 1 to capture the inbound CRS TO the RANGE in the hold, but we must also use AP MODE while we transfer the RANGE of interest from NAV2 to NAV1 *and* while we dial the next CRS1 into NAV1.
When the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) is a RANGE, each time we are inbound in the hold to the IAF in RANGE MODE we note our drift which is the difference between the ATC mandated inbound CRS we dialed into NAV1 with its OBS knob, and our current HDG shown on the RMI.
If we use AP to hold we must once again switch to AP MODE as we enter the cone of confusion over the RANGE. We go outbound using the TURN KNOB to establish exactly RATE 1 (3 deg/sec) on the turn rate gauge above. When / while outbound in the hold we need the opposite drift offset and we use the TURN KNOB to impose it as we use our RMI to sustain the HDG required to make good the reciprocal CRS in the holding pattern. After (usually) 60 seconds outbound, still in AP mode, we use the TURN KNOB to turn inbound at exactly RATE 1, (looking at the turn rate gauge immediately above), else we will not align with the compliant inbound CRS of the HOLD.
We may or may not decide to invoke RANGE mode once we are inbound again fro a second time in the hold. We do so at least once to read our drift, (which will also be our drift during the approach from the hold to the instrument runway), so that we can correct our drift using the TURN KNOB to achieve the HDG (on the RMI), which negates that drift to deliver the desired CRS when inbound to the RANGE. If we manage to negate drift on that side of the RANGE in the holding pattern it will also be negated when we proceed beyond the RANGE to the instrument runway when we clear ourselves for the approach. We should not attempt the approach until we have established inbound in the hold on the approach CRS.
The RANGE (usually) becomes the Final Approach Fix (FAF) as we pass over it and become beacon inbound to the airfield. During a RANGE approach, having used RANGE mode to establish the correct track in the current crosswind, we must reject RANGE mode and switch to AUTOPILOT MODE before crossing the RANGE towards destination. Remember during a RANGE approach the airfield is usually not on the CRS we are flying away FROM the RANGE, (using AP mode to hold the HDG on the RMI which matches the CRS in the current crosswind), because the RADIO RANGE only has four courses, usually none of which point at our destination. See 2008 Propliner Tutorial for a fully worked example and approach plate.
Always flying (automated) ILS approaches horribly misses the point of having a full function flight simulator like MSFS, and full function aircraft and systems of the kind available from Calclassic.com. They both exist to teach many additional and interesting real aircrew skills, and learning to fly different types of real approach is a necessary skill if we eventually hope to navigate in all weathers to the many minor airports which have no ILS.
BENDIX AUTOPILOT HEIGHT LIMITS.
The first airliner certificated to employ AUTOLAND was the turbofan era de Havilland Trident. No classic era propliner should ever have the AP engaged in any mode while within 200 feet of the ground. In particular LOC/GS (APR) MODE must be disconnected at least 200 feet above the runway so that we are not fighting the AP as we fly the flare manoeuvre (with rudder and yoke) to land on the mainwheels with slightly positive pitch, with no drift, at between minus 10 and minus 100 VSI. Precision is required, and precision is not available while fighting an AP for control of VSI and HDG.
In MSFS (only) it may be easier to use elevator trim to flare precisely since our desk top controls lack the longer travel and greater force required (resistance offered) by a real yoke.
Most airports in MSFS offer real RANGE (=VOR) approaches, and real STANDARD BLIND (=LOC+DME) approaches not just STANDARD BEAM (ILS) approaches. Many offer even simpler NDB approaches. Learning to fly them all begins with downloading the real world procedures from the internet;
www.calclassic.com/propliner_tutorial_charts.htm
and then using the relevant parts of the 2008 Propliner Tutorial and this mini tutorial to understand and acquire more and more highly valued real world flying skills.
It is of course possible to fly an entire sortie, and any individual real world procedure, without invoking the AP at all, so when the above says 'the AP must be in AP mode' it means if we intend to use AP in the first place of course. Learning to use real classic era Bendix APs in each of their relevant modes is however a significant part of classic era propliner (crew skill) simulation.
Using AP RANGE MODE is essential to accurate determination of drift by comparison of CRS on NAV1 to HDG on RMI, whether flying an airway, or in a holding pattern assessing the drift we will experience on the other side of the RANGE during the approach.
GPS.
The only legitimate use for GPS in the classic era of aviation history is oceanic track compliance. During oceanic flight we must employ the procedures which the 2008 Propliner Tutorial described as Vintage era procedures because they still endured over oceans where there were no RANGES. GPS is provided solely for that purpose and to make use of it we will need a flight plan with the necessary oceanic track fixes included. The appropriate associated 20 minute navigation decision making cycle is explained in the 2008 Propliner Tutorial.
GROUND HANDLING PHASES.
Having no weather forecasts and having loaded 'more than adequate' fuel reserves we are content to use some of those reserves for start up, ground handling at either end of the flight, and for shut down. With piston engines fuel consumption on the ground is slight.
We taxi at a speed which allows us to sustain parallax compliance with the taxiway and runway markings. We avoid skidding the nosewheel by entering turns at restricted speed. We taxi in with flaps retracted and RPM levers advanced to maximum. Cowls are always full open during ground handling.
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After Landing:
RPM = MAXIMUM (required prior to reversing pitch)
THRUST = REVERSE (use T handle)
WHEEL BRAKES = as required
COWLS = FULL OPEN
FLAP = UP
ADI = DISARMED
AUTOFEATHER = DISARMED
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In MSFS we should invoke pitot heat, airscrew anti ice, and airframe anti ice systems from the FE panel before take off. Do *not* invoke carb RAM AIR heat, or any other variety of carb heat, during B367/377 simulation in MSFS.
TAKE OFF PHASE.
During take off we need maximum thrust. We intend to use the engines as *inefficiently* as we possibly can. The last thing we want during a take off is efficiency. We need the last available pound of thrust whatever it takes, however inefficient and expensive its production. Aeroplane captaincy is about deciding what to maximise, what to minimise, and when to do it. By contrast piloting the aeroplane is all about knowing what lever to push. However big or small the aeroplane, it always has a captain and during flight simulation we can never dodge the responsibilities of the captaincy decision making cycle.
To maximise our thrust (inefficiency) we advance the RPM levers to maximum inefficiency and only if we have fuel of adequate quality in the relevant fuel tanks we also move the throttles to maximum. The incredibly complex R-4360 Wasp Major is designed to run on military grade fuel (135 Octane AVGAS). When our airline purchased a B377 it was potentially constrained by that fact.
AVGAS IS A COCKTAIL OF CHEMICALS.
Some commercial airfields and airports did not stock military grade fuel for sale to civilians until the second half of the 1950s. Many others did not sell approved water methanol mixture. Consequently the R-4360 Wasp Major is a dual fuel engine also rated for use with airline grade (130 Octane) AVGAS, but it cannot use General Aviation grade (100 Octane) AVGAS. We must not land where there is no relevant fuel to uplift to take off again.
If we must take off using only airline grade (130 Octane) AVGAS we cannot use full throttle even though we can use maximum RPM. Applying full throttle to an R-4360 engine causes Manifold Pressure (MAP) to reach 60 inches at any runway altitude, but if we are using airline grade 130 Octane we must restrict MAP to 56.5 inches during TOGA. We must take care to do so *manually*, after lining up for take off, while we run up against the brakes. If we allow more, the inadequate quality fuel will detonate too soon damaging the engine, perhaps causing engine fire and failure during, or just after, the take off, even if we arm ADI.
Two airlines that purchased the B377 are known to have used only airline grade fuel almost all of the time. They were AOA and UAL. Their aircraft also had less efficient Curtiss aircrews and were restricted to lower weights even when they used the military grade fuel the P&W Wasp Major really needed. Using only airline grade fuel at restricted MAP they needed *very* long runways if departing at MTOW.
AUGMENTED COOLING - COWL FLAPS.
The MAP values above are only possible if we use three different methods of augmented engine cooling while we employ either of those extreme MAP values. Firstly we must partly open the cowl flaps to increase engine (profile = cooling) co-efficient of drag. The cowl flaps are used to add potentially huge engine (profile = cooling) drag co-efficient, from 112 engine cylinders. Yes, in MSFS as well as in real life. The cowls must be only partly open for take off since drag is literally negative thrust.
Maximum RPM is also maximum internal engine friction, causing maximum engine overheating, so in practice we must reduce RPM as soon as it is safe to do so, but for now we need maximum inefficiency of thrust production to maximise thrust at any price.
AUGMENTED COOLING - AUTORICH MIXTURE.
Whenever we use more than maximum cruise power we must use our precious AVGAS as the *primary* emergency engine coolant. We must pump far too much high octane AVGAS into the engine to cool it down. All the oxygen present has already combined with 'just enough' high octane AVGAS. Consequently as we pump far too much high octane AVGAS into the incredibly hot cylinders it vaporises instantly and like sweat evaporating from our skin the 'latent heat of evaporation' effect causes instant and massive cooling. Having no oxygen to combine with the vaporised fuel pours from the exhaust ports as white vapour; until / unless it ignites on contact with the outside air and burns as an exhaust flame.
The AVGAS we use for emergency engine cooling provides no thrust and so using it for engine cooling reduces our range. We cannot rely wholly on 'wasting' huge amounts of High Octane AVGAS to cool aero engines using autorich mixtures, but we have no choice whenever we apply more than max cruise MAP or max cruise RPM. If we make that captaincy choice we must use our precious AVGAS as the primary emergency engine coolant. Of course during take off and climb that choice is always forced, but we will not use more than max cruise MAP or max cruise RPM unless we need to take off, go around, or climb because we have no AVGAS to squander as coolant during the cruise, descent, holding and approach phases; even if we need to battle a headwind.
EMERGENCY COOLING - ANTI DETONATION INJECTION.
During take off and go around (TOGA) we may need even further internal emergency engine cooling, and that comes in the form of large quantities of water mixed with methanol. Mixed in the right fractions they have a very high evaporative cooling effect inside each cylinder. Before we select any MAP or any RPM in excess of METO (Maximum Except Take Off) we must *arm* the automatic water methanol Anti Detonation Injection (ADI) system. Having been armed the automated system decides when to inject the emergency water-methanol coolant and how much to inject to prevent engine malfunction. In the R-4360 Wasp Major it also varies automixture (see above and below).
In theory we could leave the system armed all the time, but in practice this caused aircrew to think it would work with empty water-methanol tanks, so we are required to disarm the ADI system after reducing to METO power and not arm ADI again until the approach phase, (in case of Go Around in TOGA power at high weights).
Use of ADI is not compulsory if we depart well below MTOW. With Hamilton Standard screws we are not required to use ADI if we depart below 140,600lbs and if we are short hauling we will always be much lighter than that due to the very restrictive MLW of the B367/377. We must make a captaincy choice. If we depart using only DRY thrust the automixture, (we have already selected in the MSFS realism screen), will vary, and the engines will produce less thrust. The runway length needed at 140,600lbs using DRY thrust approximates the runway length required at 145,800lbs using WET thrust.
Boeing 377s with less efficient Curtiss airscrews are restricted to lower MTOW WET and DRY. Their WET MTOW is 142,500lbs and they require ADI present and armed in order to depart at more than 138,000lbs. Even so short hauls will depart at much less than 138,000lbs due to the very restrictive MLW and we may then depart DRY provided the runway is long enough.
Note that if we are simulating AOA or UAL use of airline grade fuel we must restrict MAP to 56.5 inches as well.
This is all explained more briefly in the on screen handling note as follows;
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Boeing B377 Stratocruiser with Hamilton Standard airscrews Pilot's Handling Notes
The four 2650hp Pratt & Whitney R-4360-TSB3-G Wasp Major engines are carburetted and very highly turbocharged to give their rated power up to 20,000 feet. These engines have automixture in real life. *During B377 simulation set mixture to AUTO in the MSFS realism screen*. Subject to use of military grade 135 Octane AVGAS or better full throttle may be used for take off with or without Anti Detonant Injection (ADI). Each engine delivers 3,500hp briefly for take off (WET) and take off procedure does not vary with altitude. Use of airline grade 130 Octane AVGAS is permitted, but TOGA MAP becomes 56.5 inches and METO MAP becomes 50 inches.
To conserve water methanol mixture this aircraft may depart DRY with ADI DISARMED provided weight does not exceed 140,600lbs.
The Hamilton Standard constant speed propellers will autofeather after engine failure and deliver very powerful reverse pitch.
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and lower down;
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Take Off Phase:
MIXTURE = AUTO (in realism screen)
BRAKES = ON <<<<<<<<<<<<<
COWLS = 4 to 5 (CTRL+SHIFT+V)
ELEVATOR TRIM = NEUTRAL
FLAP = STAGE 2 (25 degrees)
ADI = ARMED (if > 140,600lbs) <<<<<<<<<<
AUTOFEATHER = ARMED
AVIONICS = BOTH CHANNEL SWITCHES TO ADF
RPM = MAXIMUM
MAP = FULL THROTTLE
MAP = 56.5 inches (if 130 Octane) <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
BRAKES = OFF <<<<<<<<<<<<<<
..........
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So if our departure today is at only 134,700lbs, (short hauling on a 1000 mile stage with maximum allowable payload, as fuel planned above), our airline may instruct us to load and use cheap airline grade 130 Octane AVGAS even if more expensive military grade 135 Octane AVGAS is available and we may elect to depart DRY *if the runway is long enough*. Whether it is long enough just depends on the runway headwind available today. If the wind is calm passengers or cargo may need to be offloaded (bumped). If we do load only airline grade fuel we must restrict MAP to 56.5 inches manually during take off. We may, or may not, then decide it is still safe to depart using only DRY thrust.
It was not profitable to long haul a B377 from most major airports, because in the early 1950s most did not stock and sell either the military grade fuel or the water methanol mixture needed to operate this over-complex airliner at MTOW from their short pre-jet era runways. Remember the weights we see in the 'Boys Big Book of Wonderplanes' are theoretical maxima. In many cases those theoretical maxima have little practical relevance in the real world.
USAF B367s (C-97A Stratofreighters) can obtain military or weapon grade fuel at any NATO base, never load airline grade fuel, and will never need to use less than 60 inches MAP for departure. When below 140,600lbs they may elect to depart DRY.
PRATT & WHITNEY R-4360 WASP MAJOR A.D.I.
Earlier less complex aero engines, including the R-2800 Double Wasp, had been fitted with ADI. The additional WET cooling allowed the engine to be operated at higher MAP for TOGA. Consequently all the MSFS developer has to do to provide full realism is cite the WET and DRY MAP limits, and if applicable different RPM limits for WET and DRY operation, in the on screen handling notes. It is then up to the consumer to make compliant WET and DRY MAP and RPM inputs to obtain realistic WET and DRY thrust. So for instance in the Calclassic DC-6A/B R-2800-CB17 handling notes we see;
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Take Off :
//DC6A or B with R-2800-CB17 engines
............
CALL for TOGA POWER (4 x 2500hp)
PROPS = MAX RPM
Slowly apply FULL THROTTLE
Invokes water/meth injection giving 62 inches MAP
WET is MANDATORY > 95,500lbs
*DRY TAKE OFF SET MAP = 59 & ADI will not invoke*
BRAKES = OFF
ROTATE = 117 KIAS (@ 107000lbs)
............
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The R-2800 incorporated derichment during ADI use. However the R-4360 had a much more elaborate automixture capability which provided sufficient automixture enrichment / derichment to allow full throttle TOGA even with ADI disarmed. Provided it is supplied with military grade AVGAS the R-4360 will generate 60 inches MAP, whether WET or DRY, safely and at any runway altitude.
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Take Off Phase:
//B377 with Hamilton Standard screws.
MIXTURE = AUTO (in realism screen)
................
ADI = ARMED (if > 140,600lbs)
AUTOFEATHER = ARMED
AVIONICS = BOTH CHANNEL SWITCHES TO ADF
RPM = MAXIMUM
MAP = FULL THROTTLE
MAP = 56.5 inches (if 130 Octane)
BRAKES = OFF
ROTATE = 106 KIAS (@ 147,000lbs)
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The consequence is that the complex automixture in this very complex engine 'derates' the thrust produced by this engine when DRY even though the engine runs at exactly the same MAP and RPM whether WET or DRY.
WET thrust is *automatically* almost 8% greater than DRY thrust at the same TOGA MAP and RPM. From this update onwards that also applies within MSFS. A B367/377 crew make the same throttle and RPM inputs regardless of ADI status. Until now that automated R-4360 'derating' system has been missing during R-4360 simulation.
However from now on we must ARM the R-4360 ADI system or R-4360 engines will be *automatically derated* to deliver only DRY thrust in MSFS. Inside MSFS we must arm the ADI system by clicking on the four green ADI status lights. Failure to ARM ADI may prove fatal unless the runway is very long or we are departing light. You have been warned!
Make sure you do not confuse the ADI ARMED status lights with the AUTOFEATHER ARMED status lights. AOTOFEATHER should always be armed for TOGA, but arming ADI is a captaincy choice. We may need to preserve our water/methanol mixture for use from smaller commercial airfields and airports, with shorter runways, where we cannot purchase replenishment.
If we choose to take off using only airline grade fuel we must manually limit MAP to 56.5 inches and if we fail to arm ADI the engine will be further derated causing a *very* long take off distance at the DRY thrust take off limit of 140,600lbs.
In passing let's notice that the R-2800-CB17 Double Wasp, was designed to use 145 Octane *weapon* grade fuel, in e.g. the later so called PAA 'Douglas Super Six' used for trans Atlantic services alongside the so called PAA B377 'Super Stratocruiser'. Consequently the R-2800-CB17 can generate 62 MAP WET or 59 MAP DRY in safety, while the much bigger and more powerful R-4360 Wasp Major designed to use inferior 135 Octane *military* grade fuel is limited to 60 MAP WET or DRY but is automatically derated to produce about 8% less thrust when DRY.
Either engine may require careful manual restriction of MAP as we run up against the brakes, after lining up on the runway, but the reasons are different.
We can rotate the much heavier, but much bigger winged, B377 at much lower IAS = Vr, but it will take longer to reach that lower IAS in a B367/377 due to all the extra mass we must accelerate; and much longer if we depart with only R-4360 DRY thrust. Nevertheless DRY thrust departures are appropriate to a DC6B or a B367/B377 if we are light enough and the runway is long enough, (which really means if the headwind during take off is strong enough today).
This Boeing 367/377 update completes the process of providing realistic WET and DRY thrust for all Calclassic aircraft, (which I still support), for all relevant engine variants, to which that concept is applicable. Most now also have on screen handling note instructions for operation with different grades of AVGAS if applicable.
Continued in next post...